The Doctors Blackwell: How Two Pioneering Sisters Brought Medicine to Women and Women to Medicine

Elizabeth Blackwell was known for being the first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States. The Doctors Blackwell primarily focuses on exploring her life and career. Elizabeth was born to a socially progressive family in Bristol, England, on February 3, 1821. Her father, Samuel Blackwell, was a sugar refiner and an advocate for social reform, particularly in the abolitionist movement. Her mother, Hannah Lane Blackwell, supported her husband's ideals and taught their children the values of education and social justice. In 1832, the Blackwell family emigrated to the United States and eventually settled in Cincinnati, Ohio. Unfortunately, Samuel's death in 1838 left the family in financial distress. Elizabeth and her sisters began to teach to support themselves.

Elizabeth's interest in medicine stemmed from a conversation with a dying friend who said some of her suffering would have been alleviated if a female doctor had treated her, which led Elizabeth to pursue a career in medicine. At the time, no medical school in the United States admitted women, a reflection of The Struggle for Gender Equality in the 19th Century. Elizabeth applied to numerous medical colleges, and after repeated rejections, she was accepted by Geneva Medical College in New York in 1847. At Geneva, Elizabeth faced prejudice and hostility but excelled at her studies. In 1849, she graduated first in her class and became the first woman in America to earn a medical degree. After graduation, Elizabeth continued her medical training in Europe, studying at La Maternité in Paris and later at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London. While in Paris, she contracted purulent ophthalmia while treating an infant, resulting in the loss of one eye and an end to her aspirations of becoming a surgeon.

Upon her return to the United States in 1851, Elizabeth again faced challenges in establishing her practice. The male-dominated medical community was reluctant to accept a female doctor, and patients were scarce, demonstrating The Impact of Cultural and Societal Barriers on Women’s Professional Opportunities. Nevertheless, in 1857, she opened the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children with her sister, Emily, who also became a doctor, and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska. The infirmary provided medical care to poor people and offered clinical training for women doctors and nurses. The Infirmary became a cornerstone for women's medical education and healthcare. Elizabeth also wrote extensively on health and hygiene, focusing on the importance of preventive care.

Elizabeth's later years were marked by a shift from clinical practice to moral and social reform. She also took in an orphan, Katherine “Kitty” Barry, who served as a companion to Elizabeth and provided her with domestic support. In 1869, Elizabeth returned to England, and in 1874, she helped found the London School of Medicine for Women, which provided formal medical education to women. She passed on May 31, 1910, following a stroke in Hastings, England.

Emily Blackwell was born on October 8, 1826, in Bristol, England, the sixth of nine Blackwell children. She was a physician and educator who, alongside her sister Elizabeth, was crucial to advancing medical education for women. While The Doctors Blackwell primarily focuses on Elizabeth’s career, it also deals with Emily’s and how her elder sister impacted it.

As a young child, Emily was interested in the natural sciences. After Elizabeth received a medical degree from Geneva Medical College, Emily pursued a career in the same field. She was also denied admission to many medical schools due to her gender, typical of Gender Inequality in the 19th Century, but was accepted by Rush Medical College in Chicago in 1852. However, this admission was revoked after one term due to external pressure from those within the college who opposed coeducation. Emily was eventually admitted to the Medical College of Cleveland, now part of Case Western Reserve University. In 1854, she graduated with a medical degree.

Upon completing her degree, Emily joined Elizabeth in New York City, where they aimed to establish a medical practice. In 1857, they co-founded the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children, along with Dr. Marie Zakrzewska. Emily played a critical role in the development and operation of the infirmary. She managed the daily operations of the infirmary, mentored young female medical students, and ensured the hospital maintained high standards of care. Emily was a practicing physician and a staunch advocate for medical education for women, pursuits that represented The Intersection of Personal Ambition and Social Change. In 1868, with her sister, she helped establish the Women's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, which was dedicated to providing women with the same rigorous medical education as men, including clinical experience and theoretical knowledge. As one of the primary instructors and administrators, Emily shaped the curriculum and ensured the college adhered to high academic standards. Emily's contributions went beyond her professional achievements as she was deeply involved in various social causes, including the abolitionist movement and women's suffrage. Emily Blackwell died on September 7, 1910, in York Cliffs, Maine, due to enterocolitis, only a few months after her sister passed.

Marie Zakrzewska was one of the first female physicians in the United States. Her role in The Doctors Blackwell is supporting but critical in the later chapters, as she worked closely with the Blackwell sisters in New York.

Zakrzewska was born on September 6, 1829, in Berlin, Prussia (now Germany), as the eldest of six children to a midwife and a craftsman. Marie was exposed to the medical field from a young age through her mother’s work. After several rejections, she was admitted to the midwifery school at the Charité Hospital in Berlin, where she graduated in 1851. Dr. Joseph Schmidt, a professor who supported her ambitions, secured her the position of chief midwife, with Zakrzewska being the first woman in the role. Despite her competence, she faced opposition and was dismissed after six months following Dr. Schmidt's death. Afterward, she emigrated to America in 1853 with her sister Anna, hoping to find better opportunities to practice medicine. However, she was plagued with setbacks due to finances and gender inequality. Things changed when she met Elizabeth Blackwell, who helped her join the medical staff at Blackwell's dispensary and gain admission to the Western Reserve University’s medical program. Zakrzewska graduated in 1856 and helped found the New York Infirmary for Women and Children in 1857 with the Blackwell sisters. She later moved to Boston, where she was appointed Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children at the Boston Female Medical College. However, she resigned in 1861 when the founder insisted on calling female graduates "doctresses" instead of doctors. Like the Blackwells, she wanted to further women’s medical education and founded the New England Hospital for Women and Children, the first hospital in Boston run by and for women. The hospital continued to operate for over a century and evolved into the Dimock Community Health Center, which still serves the Boston community today.

As with the Blackwell sisters, Zakrzewska never married. In her later years, she continued to be active in medical and social reform circles and mentored younger female physicians. She died on May 12, 1902.